FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION OKLAHOMA CITY OK CIVIL AEROMEDICAL INSTOverview
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FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION OKLAHOMA CITY OK CIVIL AEROMEDICAL INST
The Role of Shift Work And Fatigue in Air Traffic Control Operational Errors and Incidents
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Book
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide This report was developed from a collaborative effort between the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute's (CAMI's) Shift Work and Fatigue Research Program and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Ames Research Center's Fatigue Countermeasures Program. The purpose of this report was to examine existing databases to assess the extent to which shift work and fatigue might be factors associated with incidents and errors in air traffic control (ATC) operations.
Concepts Providing for Physiological Protection After Aircraft Cabin Decompression in The Altitude Range of 60, 000 to 80,000 Feet above Sea Level
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The European aircraft Concorde provides evidence that the technology required for building supersonic passenger transport has long been available. In the United States, development efforts for this type of airplane were functionally abandoned in the early l970s. In recent years, changes in technology, world political structures, and economics have stimulated interest in the development of a fleet of supersonic transports for use in civilian aviation. The future aircraft has been designated the High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). As part of the development process, all potential challenges associated with design characteristics of the aircraft must be addressed. This report reviews the physiological issues related to cabin decompression during high-altitude flight. A number of strategies for protecting passengers and crew members after high-altitude cabin decompression are discussed. Due to the physiological consequences associated with high-altitude decompression, a combination of protective systems may be necessary. At a minimum, it would appear that increased structural integrity of the cabin, a repressurization system, and an optimally designed supplemental oxygen system for crew and passengers are required.
Comparison of Buckle Release Timing for Push-Button and Lift-Latch Belt Buckles
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide Small aircraft passenger restraint systems most commonly use lift-latch type buckle release mechanisms. Push- button buckle release mechanisms, similar to those used in contemporary automobiles, have rarely been used on passenger restraints. Although push-button buckles are not explicitly prohibited by Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations, the human factors aspects of introducing push-button buckles in an aircraft environment are important considerations from the standpoint of safety. A test program was conducted by the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute (CAMI) with volunteer human subjects to measure and compare the times it takes a passenger to release a push-button buckle on a 3-point restraint, a common lift-latch buckle on a 3-point restraint, and a lift-latch buckle on a common lap belt. Sixty subjects were tested in a repeated-measures counterbalanced test protocol, which included instrumentation to measure the response times to release the buckle. Response time for the subjects to exit the seat and press a remote button was also acquired. This report includes the physical profiles of the subjects, the test protocol, and a statistical summary of the results. Based on the data acquired in this project, there was no major difference in the response times of the human subjects to release or egress from a 3-point restraint with a push-button buckle, compared with a lift-latch buckle on a 3- point or a common lap belt restraint. This study was intended to address factors associated with the use of push-button buckles restraint systems in small airplanes. Any consideration of the use of push-button buckles on commercial transport aircraft passenger seats should include data on a broader range of human factors.
Index to FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports: 1961 through 1998
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Book
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide An index to Federal Aviation Administration Office of Aviation Medicine Repots (1964-1998) and Civil Aeromedical Institute Reports is presented for those engaged in aviation medicine and related activities. The index lists all FAA aviation medicine reports published from 1961 through 1998: chronologically, alphabetically by author, and alphabetically by subject. A foreword describes aspects of the Civil Aeromedical Institute's 38 years of service, describes the index's sections, and explains how to obtain copies of published Office of Aviation Medicine technical reports.
The Aeromedical Certification of Photorefractive Keratectomy in Civil Aviation: A Reference Guide
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Book
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The use of surgery to correct refractive errors continues to evolve at a significant pace. Radial keratotomy (RK), the first widely accepted refractive surgical procedure, involves making radial incisions on the peripheral cornea. These incisions weaken the cornea and allow intraocular pressure to push the peripheral cornea out, flattening the apex and reducing refractive power. There are many disadvantages with RK that raise concerns regarding its use in the aviation environment. These include: progressive hyperopic shifts, reduced corneal strength, fluctuation of vision, glare, poor refractive predictability and altitude-induced corneal changes. In October 1995, the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of the excimer laser to perform photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) to reshape the anterior curvature of the cornea. Since that time, PRK has become the refractive surgical procedure of choice. It has been reported that for low to moderate levels of myopia there is greater predictability, no fluctuation of vision or reduction in corneal strength, and about 85% of patients have uncorrected visual acuity of 20/40 or better. As with RK, there are aspects of PRK that raise concerns about its use in the aviation environment. Some of these include: night vision problems (e.g., glare, halos around lights, haze, starbursts, and dim lighting difficulties), reduced contrast sensitivity, stability of refraction, reduced best-corrected visual acuity, and induced anisometropia. Using a mathematical model, it was estimated that by the year 2000 there may be over 1,200 civil airmen who elect to have PRK performed. To provide the aeromedical community with information to formulate administrative decisions and policies associated with this new refractive surgical procedure, this paper reviews the results of clinical trials on PRK and discusses its applicability in aviation.
An Analysis of Voice Communication in a Simulated Approach Control Environment
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Book
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide This report consists of an analysis of simulated terminal radar approach control (TRACON) air traffic control communications. Twenty-four full performance level air traffic controllers (FPLATC) from 2 TRACON facilities participated in the simulation study. Each controller worked 2 light- and 2 heavy-traffic density scenarios for feeder and final sectors. All communications were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim by a retired FPLATC. Once transcribed, transmissions were parsed into communication elements. Each communication element was assigned a speech act category (e.g., address, instruction, request, or advisory), an aviation topic (e.g., altitude, heading, speed) and then coded for irregularities (e.g., grouping numbers together when they should be spoken sequentially, or omitting, substituting, or adding words contrary to required phraseology) (ATSAT, Prinzo et al., 1995). The simulated communications were compared to an analysis performed on audiotapes from the same TRACON facilities. Percentages in 3 speech act categories were comparable (Instruction, 55% versus 51%; Address; 14% versus 26%; Advisory, 24% versus 18%). Detailed analyses revealed that, although there were fewer irregular communications produced during simulation, the distributions of those communication irregularities were very much the same, with the exception of aircraft call sign. The differences in those distributions were attributed to the voice recognition system; it could not recognize a call sign spoken sequentially and then restated in grouped form.
Cockpit Integration of GPS: Initial Assessment-Menu Formats and Procedures
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide A popular portable Global Positioning System (GPS) unit (Megellan EC-lOX), representative of this class of devices, was examined for its usability by general aviation pilots. Nine private pilots participated in the experimentation, which was accomplished in three phases: familiarization and training, usability testing, and post-experiment debriefing. During familiarization and training, participants were asked to study flow diagrams representing GPS interface logic, observed a demonstration of the unit's features and procedures, and then were allowed to practice with the unit until they could demonstrate proficiency. During the usability testing phase, participants performed 37 GPS-related tasks requiring waypoint setting, GPS navigation, and general GPS-data entry and retrieval. Findings from videotape, questionnaire, and debriefing data indicated that a number of menu structures interfered with the pilots' successful entry of data, editing of stored data, and activation of functions. For example, one source of confusion resulting in excess button presses was the need to deactivate the flight plan before any editing could be done. Recommendations are made for defining the form of the interface structure in this class of devices, including: A given function should be consistently assigned to one button, feedback should be consistent and meaningful, and an "undo" or "back" function would be a very useful way to decrease the number of button presses required by this interface.
Selection of an Internal Standard for Postmortem Ethanol Analysis
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide One mission of the Civil Aeromedical Institute is to determine the concentrations of alcohol in postmortem specimens related to aviation accidents. This requires the ability to identify and quantitate a wide range of alcohols that are produced in postmortem specimens. A headspace gas chromatographic procedure utilizing n-propanol as an internal standard had been used in the past. However, n-propanol has been found in postmortem specimens, making n-propanol an unsuitable specimen for an internal standard in the analysis of postmortem specimens. This study evaluated 3 potential replacement internal standards for postmortem ethanol analysis. Method: A mixture of alcohols commonly found in postmortem specimens was prepared and tested using headspace gas chromatography. Solutions were prepared using the test mix and the new internal standards. Data were collected on the resolution and reproducibility of the proposed new internal standards with the test mix. Postmortem cases collected over the past 8 years were reviewed for the presence of specific volatile compounds. Results: Baseline resolution from the test mix was not obtained with propionaldehyde, while propionic acid methyl ester exhibited degradation over time. T-butanol was found to give baseline resolution from all volatile compounds commonly found in antimortem and postmortem specimens. No t-butanol was found in 2880 fatal pilots analyzed over the past 8 years for the presence of volatiles. Conclusion: t-butanol is a better internal standard for the analysis of alcohols in postmortem specimens than propionaldehyde, n-propanol, and propionic acid methyl ester, and is not produced in postmortem specimens.
Predictors of Perceived Empowerment: An Initial Assessment
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide Empowerment of employees regarding their work procedures is considered an important approach to improved organizational effectiveness. Recent research suggests that employee empowerment is related to a number of variables besides organizational structure and the use of teams. The present paper examined a number of organizational context variables, obtained from three samples in two government agencies. Perceptions of empowerment were then predicted from these context variables. The results show that perceptions of communication are the strongest predictor of empowerment perceptions across samples. In addition, the size of the communication slope estimate (B value) did not differ across the sample. The results support the contention that context factors besides teams and restructuring are related to empowerment. Specifically, communication perceptions are consistently the strongest predictor across samples and measures. Future research should examine the mechanisms that relate communication and empowerment.
Summative Evaluation of the Collegiate Training Initiative for Air Traffic Control Specialists Program: Progress of Minnesota Air Traffic Control Training Center Graduates in En Route Field Training
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide This summative evaluation of the Collegiate Training Initiative for Air Traffic Control Specialists focused on the progress of the Minnesota Air Traffic Control Training Center (MnATCTC) graduates in en route field training. The evaluation compared 136 MnATCTC graduates with 157 FAA Academy graduates on 4 classes of measures: (a) diversity; (b) progress in training at the first assigned field facility; (c) attrition from the first assigned field facility; and (d) performance ratings at the first assigned facility. A cost-benefit analysis for the MnATCTC program was also conducted. There were significantly more women in the MnATCTC (40%) than in the FAA Academy group (17%); there were no significant differences in minority representation. Just 17% of the MnATCTC had achieved full performance level (FPL) certification as of June 1995, compared with 69% of the FAA Academy group. However, time to FPL and attrition rates were similar. MnATCTC graduates were rated significantly lower than FAA Academy graduates by supervisors in teamwork, technical skill, technical knowledge, and overall potential to succeed in the ATCS occupation. Cost analysis found that MaATCTC per-hire costs would be competitive with FAA Academy costs-per-student by FY1998-2000. Cost-benefit analysis found that the MnATCTC would begin returning about $1.45 in avoided costs and savings to the agency for every $1 invested by FY1998-2001, even with continued FAA financial support. However, with a maximum capacity of about 100 graduates per year, the MnATCTC can provide only a small fraction of the FAA controller workforce. In summary, this evaluation found that the MnATCTC program appears to be achieving its stated goals.
Differential Training Needs and Abilities at Air Traffic Control Towers: Should All Controllers Be Trained Equally
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The present study uses job elements identified by subject-matter experts to assess the perceived training needs of air traffic control specialists (ATCSs) who are assigned to towers after successful completion of FAA Academy training. The Director of Air Traffic Services tasked The Air Traffic Resource Management Program (ATX) with conducting a training needs assessment. To measure the needed skills and knowledge of new controllers, a survey was developed by ATX and distributed by the Civil Aeromedical Institute to 172 tower level III, IV, and V facility managers and nine regional Air Traffic Division managers. The survey was used to assess the performance-based skills standards needed by new controllers at the time of entry into a field facility. The training capability of individual towers was also examined. The results indicated that there are some differences in the required training of ATCSs assigned to level IV and V towers. Therefore, the tower assignment of new hires should be identified upon entry into the Academy to better focus on the specific training needs of prospective towers.
Refractive Surgery in the Civil Airman Population by Class of Medical Certificate and by Aviation Occupation
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide Refractive surgical procedures performed in the United States have increased in recent years and continued growth is projected in the near future. These procedures have been associated with numerous side-effects, including glare, reduced contrast sensitivity, and fluctuating visual acuity. The quality of vision after refractive surgery may be unacceptable in a cockpit environment. This report reviews the aeromedical certification experience with the refractive surgery population. Active airmen with FAA-specific pathology codes 130 (radial keratotomy) and 5179 (general eye pathology with surgical prefix), during the period 1 January 1994 through 31 December 1996, were identified in the Consolidated Airman Information System medical database. The medical records of airmen with pathology code 5179 were reviewed. Airmen identified by records review as having had refractive surgery, and those with pathology code 130 were collated into a database and analyzed against demographic data extracted from Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications. Airmen with refractive surgery were further stratified by aviation occupation (pilot, copilot, first and second officer, and flight engineer). There were 3,761 airmen identified as having had some type of refractive surgical procedure during the study period. The prevalence rate of refractive surgery in the total civil airman population was 6.21/1,000 airmen. By class of airman medical certificate, the prevalence rate was 3.60/1,000 for first-class, 6.26/1,000 for second-class, and 7.43/1,000 for third-class holders. A total of 133 airmen (125 pilots and 8 flight engineers) with refractive surgery was identified as employees of scheduled and nonscheduled airlines. Airmen who have had refractive surgery are present in all classes of civil aeromedical certificate holders, including a substantial number of crewmembers who fly for commercial airlines.
Bloodborne Pathogens in Aircraft Accident Investigation
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2 editions published in 1997 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) amended 29 CFR Part 1910 in 1991 to include regulations addressing occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens (BBP). The rule affects all employees who have the potential for occupational exposure to these pathogens. An accident scene presents significant challenges in terms of implementing a program which was primarily envisioned to affect personnel in "traditional" healthcare delivery facilities; the OSHA requirements now had to be met in the chaotic, inhospitable, and logistically difficult environment of an aircraft accident site.
The Combination of Flight Count and Control Time as a New Metric of Air Traffic Control Activity
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The exploration of measures of airspace activity is useful in a number of significant ways, including the establishment of baseline air traffic control (ATC) measures and the development of tools and procedures for airspace management. This report introduces a new metric of ATC activity that combines two existing measures (flight count and the time aircraft are under control). The Aircraft Activity Index (AAI) is sensitive to changes in both flight count and flight length, and therefore is a superior measure for comparing aircraft activity between two epochs of time. The AAI was applied to data from 10 days of System Analysis Recordings obtained from the Seattie Air Route Control Center. The advantages of the AAI were most apparent when different aircraft types consistently had different mean flight lengths. Possible uses of the AAI and other ATC measures for the evaluation of new systems and procedures are discussed.
Optimizing Blink Parameters for Highlighting an Air Traffic Control Situation Display
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2 editions published in 1999 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide Research suggests blinking targets are more alerting than steady targets; however, several factors can interact with blinking to either improve or degrade its attention-getting value. Those factors include target size, color, brightness contrast, frequency of blink, and the time the blink is at maximum brightness relative to the time it is off or dim during the blink cycle. No guidelines were found for determining the optimal attention-getting blink amplitude (the percentage of decrease in target brightness from a standard) and the interaction of blink amplitude with the other blink characteristics mentioned above. Thirty-six participants were asked to locate and select blinking blocks of text on a simulated air traffic control display to examine the interaction of blink frequencies, amplitudes, and duration with size of text. Our results support the use of amplitudes 75% or greater combined with frequencies from 2 to 4 Hertz and text size 0.15 inch or greater for optimum highlighting value in visual search tasks.
The Relationship of Sector Characteristics to Operational Errors
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2 editions published in 1998 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide An exploratory study was conducted on the relationship of air traffic control (ATC) complexity factors to operational errors (OEs). This consisted of a detailed examination of OE data from 1992 through 1995 from the Atlanta en route center. The Systematic Air Traffic Operations Research Initiative (SATORI) system was used to collect data for the analysis. Sectors were categorized into zero-, low-, and high-error groups. Fifteen sector and traffic flow variables had statistically significant correlations with OE frequency. Four variables were higher for the high-error group as compared to the zero-error group. Sector size was smaller for the high-error group as compared to the combined zero- and low-error categories. A significant multiple correlation was found between overall OE rate and a subset of the ATC complexity measures. The data were also analyzed to define relationships between the complexity measures and controller situational awareness (SA) at the time of the OE. The only statistically significant difference between OEs with and without SA was for horizontal separation. In addition, high-error sectors were characterized by low SA for errors. Certain sector and traffic flow characteristics were associated with these high-error sectors, suggesting that these factors may negatively affect SA. It was concluded that the results demonstrated a relationship between sector complexity and OE rate. Such findings, if extended, could assist with traffic management, sector design activities, and the development of decision-support systems.
Flight Attendant Fatigue. Part 6: Fatigue Countermeasure Training and Potential Benefits
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1 edition published in 2009 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide Today's aviation industry is a 24/7 operation that produces a variety of challenges for cabin crew members, including extended duty periods, highly variable schedules, and frequent time zone changes. While these operational requirements may be necessary, they are far from ideal with respect to the human body's biological rhythms for managing sleep and alertness. In fact, acute sleep loss, sustained periods of wakefulness, and circadian factors resulting from this form of misalignment are all contributors to fatigue and fatigue-related mishaps (Caldwell, 2005; Rosekind et al., 1996). The strategic management of fatigue is necessary for safety improvement throughout the industry. Employee educational programs regarding the dangers of fatigue, the causes of sleepiness, and the importance of proper sleep hygiene to improve sleep quality may be critical for effective fatigue management (Caldwell, 2005). This report outlines specific recommendations regarding fatigue countermeasures training and its potential benefits to flight attendant operations.
Data-Linked Pilot Reply Time On Controller Workload and Communication in a Simulated Terminal Option
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1 edition published in 2001 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide This report describes an analysis of air traffic control communication and workload in a simulated terminal radar approach control environment. The objective of this study was to investigate how pilot-to-controller data-link acknowledgment time might affect controller-perceived workload and operational communication. Eight controllers provided air traffic services to simulated arrival aircraft during a moderate-traffic density simulation in which voice radio and data link communications were available. The effect of a delay in downlinked pilot acknowledgment time to controller uplinked messages was the primary variable of interest. Each controller completed the same scenario twice, with the order of presentation counterbalanced. That is, for the first simulation, half the controllers received immediate responses to their data link messages while the other half received pilot acknowledgment time delayed by about 11 seconds. The primary finding was a general, albeit not statistically significant, tendency among controllers towards an increase in subjective workload overall and on individual dimensions of the NASA Task Load Index when the simulation environment supported mixed, rather than immediate pilot responses. The analysis performed on communication measures revealed that controller workload was affected by the communications capability onboard the aircraft but not ghost pilot response type (immediate, delayed). Transmissions to data link-equipped aircraft took longer to complete and contained longer pauses than transmissions to non-data linked aircraft. The mode of communications selected by controllers also influenced workload but ghost pilot response type did not.
The LC/MS Quantitation of Vardenafil (Levitra) in Postmortem Biological Specimens
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1 edition published in 2006 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide During the investigation of aviation accidents, postmortem specimens from accident victims are submitted to the Federal Aviation Administration's Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI) for toxicological analysis. As new medications are introduced to the market and are subsequently used by aviation accident victims, CAMI's forensic toxicology laboratory is tasked with developing analytical methods for the determination of these compounds. This report presents a rapid and reliable method for the identification and quantitation of vardenafil (Levitra) in biological specimens. This procedure utilizes sildenafil-d8, which structurally is closely related to vardenafil, as an internal standard for more accurate and reliable quantitation. The method incorporates solid phase extraction and LC/MS/MS and MS/MS/MS utilizing an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ion trap mass spectrometer in the positive chemical ionization mode. Solid-phase extraction proved to be exceptionally efficient providing recoveries that ranged from 94-97%. The limit of detection for vardenafil was determined to be 0.19 ng/mL. The linear dynamic range for this compound was 0.39 - 200 ng/mL. This method was successfully applied to postmortem fluid and tissue specimens obtained from an aviation accident victim. This novel analytical procedure proved to be simple, accurate, and robust for the identification and quantitation of vardenafil in postmortem specimens.
Anthropometry of Airline Stewardesses
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1 edition published in 1975 in English and held by 2 libraries worldwide The report presents the body measurements of 423 stewardess trainees enrolled in the American Airlines Stewardess Training Academy in Fort Worth, Texas, between February and June 1971. It includes the means, standard deviations, coefficients of variation, percentiles, and related statistics of 72 standard anthropometric and functional measurements. The survey was initiated to provide adequate criteria for improving the emergency equipment availability and workspace design for the stewardess. more
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